english last names

English surnames

English surnames can be divided into five classes: Baptisimal or Personal (first) names, local, official, and occupative surnames. Nicknames represent the last class. Practically there are only four classes, for it is often hard ti distinguish between occupation and office.
After local names the largest class is baptisimal surnames with their endless nicknames, pet forms, diminutives, etc.
All the countries of Western Europe seem to have adopted the same means of securing identification. Wales is the great exception. Here there is scarcely a trade name, only a few nicknames, no official surnames, just a sprinkling of local surnames, and the rest, 95 per cent, are baptismal names. At present Wales surnames defeat their own intention, namely to give individuality to the nominee.
The English natural growth of district branches of hereditary surnames from 1250 to 1459 fortunately escaped this obstacle to identification. The five classes mentioned above have proved amply sufficient for the purpose.
One of the greatest difficulties in solving the origin of English surnames comes under the law of imitation. The parentage being forgotten, people began to pronounce their names in such way as seemed to convey a meaning. After the institution of Church Registers the clerk wrote down accordingly. Now we have Trott stands for Troyt, Goodyear for Goodier, Gospell for Gosbell, Sisterson for Sissotson, etc.

Official and occupative names.

Official name type comprises the smallest class, and occupative names the next smallest. There is no material change or modification in their form, but historically they are very interesting. Such names as Napier, Carver, Sewer, Ewer, Butler, Page, etc are with us today and represent indoor offices familiar to the baronial halls of the surname period.
Woodward, Pinder, Hunt, Falconer, ect represent the outdoor position of occupative names.
'Son' is a suffix to occupative names. This is a small but interesting class: Hindson, Herdson, Shephrdson, etc.
'Herd' is a suffix too, but has undergone strange experience. The suffix itself has given Herd. Hird, and Heard. In compounds we get surnames like Calvert for Calveherd, coward for Cowherd, etc.
'Monger' is a suffix, but it looks as if most of the names with it are now obsolete, including Flesmongere, Cornmonger, Heymongere, etc.
'Maker' is an occupative suffix too. The popular names are: Parchmentmaker, Moneymaker, Clokmaker, ect.
'Hewer' is a suffix representing a small number, but one or two of them still live: Woodyer for Woodhewer (hewers of wood), or Fleshewer, a butcher.
'Smith' is a suffix. It is very often compounded with the color of the metal worked on: Brounsmyth, Blakesmith, Grensmythe, etc.
'Wright' is a suffix. When compounded, it creates names like Arkwright, Tellwright, or Slaywright. The compounded names are not to be confused with similar looking first names as Allwright, Woolwright, or Kenwright.
Occupative suffix 'er' created names as Parker, Tasker, Baker, Conder, Spicer, etc.
Suffix 'ster' describes occupations followed by women: Rokster, Blakster, Backsterm Walkster, Webster.

Baptismal Surnames.

Baptismal surnames often can be visually identified by various suffixes and letter combinations. We will consider some of them below.
'Ing' and 'win' are baptisimal suffixes that go side by side, sometimes suggesting 'ing' is the parents, sometimes that 'win' is. Hardwin and Harding, Brunwin and Bruning, Gunwin and Gunning, etc.
'Idge' as a suffix for 'ich.' This Aldrich becomes Aldridge, Eldrich becomes Eldridge, etc. These look local but are not so.
'T' as a prefix to 'a.' Hence Taddy for Addy, Teddy for Edward.
'G' after 'n.' an excrescence. Hence Jenin and Jennings, Collin and Collinhge, Embling for Emilin.
'X' for 'ks' and 'cks.' Coxon for Cockson, Wilcoxon for Wilcockson (the son of William) Dixon for Dickson, Baxter for Bakester, etc.
'P' after 'm.' Thompson for Thomson, Simpson for Simson, Hampson for Hamson.
'B' after 'm.' Embling for Emlin, or Hambling for Hameline.
'D,' an excrescence after 'n.' Simmonds for Simmons, Hammond for Hamon, Jolland for Jollan, Walrand for Waleran, etc.
'N,' a prefix to personal and local surnames with an initial vowel. Thus Nab was the nickname of Abel, whence Nabbs, Nibb was the nickname of Isabel, Noll, the nickname of Oliver.
'A' or 'i' turned into 'in.' Hence Pottinger for Potager, Massinger or Messinger for Messager, Clavinger for Claviger.
'T' for 'd,' and vice versa. Hence Atkins for Adkins, Atty for Addie, Tandy for Dandy, etc.
'Ch' for 'j.' Hence Chubb for Jubb (Job).
'J' and 'g' interchangeable. Hence Jack and Gill, Joscelyn for Goscelin, Jarrett for Gerard.
'G' for 'c.' Hence Gusterson for Custerson, Grain for Crane, etc.
'M' for 'n,' when the termination of each syllable is 'n.' Pensom represents Penson, Hansom is Hanson, Ransom and Ransome are Ranson.
'N' for 'm,' and vice versa. Sinkinson for Simkinson, Grinstead for Grimstead, Sunter for Sumpter, etc.
'Ce' for 's.' Preece for Prees, Ellice for Ellis, Pearce for Piers, Evance for Evans, etc.
'K' for 'g,' or vice versa. Kilbey for Gilby.
'N' for 'l,' and vice versa. A common illustration is banister for baluster. Twichell and Twichen.
'W' for 'g.' Willia, for Guillaume or Waring or Wareing for Guarin.
'G' prefixed bto 'w' (Welsh).Gwalter for Walter, Gwynne for Wynne, Gwatkin for Watkin, Gwelch for Welch, etc.
Reversal of 'r' to the first syllable. Grundy for Gundry, the once famouse girl-name Gundreda.
'V' for 'f,' generally a West Country dialect change. Thus Vowell for Fowell, Venn for Fenn, Vrench for French, Vry for Fry.
'P' for 'm' in female names. Hence Margaret bacame the nickname Meg, then Peg, then Pegg, Pegson, etc. Martha bacame Matty, then Patty. Hence Mary bacame Moll and Molly, then Poll and Polly, and resulted in such surnames as Polson.
'Kins' (suffix) abbreviated to 'iss' and 'es.' Hence Perkins (Peter) became Purkiss and finally Perkes; so also Wilks for Wilkins, Danks for Dankins, and Tonks for Tonkins.
'Ou' or 'ow' for 'o.' Poulson and Powlson for Polson, Howell and Powell for Hoel, Houlden for Holden.
'Ck' and 'g' (lazified form). Fligg and Flick, Slagg and Slack, Segger and Secker.
'P' for 'b.' Hopps is Hobbs, Hopson is Hobson, Hopkins is Hobkins.
'A' and 'e' interchangeable. Gervis and Jarvis, Clerk and Clark, Perkin and Parking, Hermitage and Armitage, etc.
'Er' for 'in' or 'en.' This was a very natural corruption. Patterson for Pattison, Catterson for Catherine, Steverson fo Stevenson, Dickerson for Dickinson, etc.
'O' and 'a.' Generally North Country variations. Dabbs for Dobbs, Dadd and Dadson for Dod and Dodson, etc.
'Eline,' a diminutive. Hamlyn or Hambling for Hameline, Emberlin or Embling for Emeline, etc.
Double diminutives 'in-ot' or 'in-et.' Lambinet, Perrinot or Perrotin (Peter), Jannotin (Jane), Hugonet (Hugh), etc.
Diminutive in 'ot' and 'et.' All thos diminutives were added to the nickname of the name, which was always one syllable. Emmett or Emmott, or Emmetson or Emmotson, are sprung from Emma.
Diminutives in 'on' or 'in.' Huggins or Hutchins represents a once well known term for Hugh, Perrin for Peter, Marion for Mary, Robin or Dobbin for Robert, and so on.
Diminutives in 'kin.' 'Kin' came to mean a 'young one,' a child. There are plenty of names created with that: Hankin (John), Lambkin (Lambert), Bodkin (Baldwin), Hawkins (Henry), Jeffkin (Jeffrey), Dawkins (David), etc.
Diminutives in 'cock.' The term 'cock' implied pertness, especially the ertness of lusty abd swaggering youth. Hence it was applied to the scullery lad, or stable-boy, or prentice. We have Jeffcock (Jeffrey), Simcock (Simon), Batcock or Badcock (Bartholomew), Palcock (Paul), etc.
Ecclesiastical, natural, and holiday seasons have had considerable effect upon English surnames. Whitsunday, Pentecost, Easter, Pash, Pask, Pace, Midwinter, Candlemas, Noel, Christmas, and Tiffany (Epiphany), all represent first names, commemorating the time of the birth or baptism of the child. All later one became surnames. Of the natuarl seasons we may mention Winter, Spring, and Summer.

Local Last Names.

Local last names also deal with the prefix and suffix.
Taking the prefix first, the fight lay between the name of the primary settler or proprietor, and the distinctive surroundings. Thus we get Ashton, Birkhead, Oakden, Acton, Acland, Beecham, Hazelden, Sandford, Bradford, Longton, Plumptree, and an enormous number of local affixes. But there is also and extremely large number of local surnames prefixed with the first name of the first settler or owner. The great name of Ulf or Wolf gives us Ulverston, Wolferton, Wolverhampton.
One of the most known suffixes is 'ey' (sometimes 'ay'). Usually it represents 'hey,' or 'hay,' the 'h' being elided, and meant a hedge, an enclosed space. Of course this 'ey' is to be distinguished from 'ey' and 'eyot,' a little islet in a stream. Churchey, Fotheringay, and Goldinggay are examples of such names.
'White' for 'thwaite,' a clearing. Applewhite, Kibblewhite, Hebblewhite are all examples of this type.
'Thorpe' becomes 'thurp,' 'throp,' or 'trop.' Calthrop for Calthrop, Feltrup for Felthrop, and fo forth are all examples of this type.
'Ham' sometimes beomes 'um:' Barnum for Barnham, or Holtum for Holtham.
'Boyd' (presumably a ridding, a clearing) sometimes becomes 'rod:' Oldroyd, Murgatroyd (Margaret's clearing), Ormerod (Orme's clearing), Grindrod (the green clearing), etc.
'Halgh' for 'hough' or 'haugh,' a hill a mound, the same as How. Featherstonhalgh for Featherstonhaugh, Greenhalgh for Greenhow are examples of such names.
'By' as a suffix is not unfrequently found as 'bee.' Dimblebee, Farrabee, Applebee are examples of such names.
'End,' as in Townsend, Woodend, from residence at the end of town or wood.
'Side,' as Akenside or Garside, from residence by the side of the oak-trees or the garth.
'Bottom' or 'botham,' as in Sidebotham, Higginbottom, or Hickinbottom, from residence at the side of the bottom, a hollow at the foot of a hill, or from a dwelling in the hollow where Higgin lived.
'Head' (i.e. the upper end) becomes frequently 'ett.' Aikinhead is 'the head of the oak trees,' Muirhead is 'the head of the moor,' etc. Birkett represents 'at the birk-head,' from residence at the upper end of the birch trees. hazlitt is Hazlehead (the head of the hazel grove). Becket is the beck-head, from residence at the commencement of the beck.
'Dale' as a suffix becomes commonly 'dall.' Tindall for Tindale, Tweedall for Tweedale, Chippindall for CHippindale, etc.
'How' (a hill, a mound) as a suffix frequently becomes 'oe' or 'o.' Sholto, or Shilitoe.
'Hope' (a slopping hollow) as a suffix is easily obscured. Examples are Blenkinsop, Allsopp, Winship, and Nettleship.
'Hus' or 'us' for 'house,' seemingly old English and not a modification. Examples include but not limited to Chanonhouse, Moorhouse, Wodehouse, TaphouseKirkus (Kirkhouse)m Loftus (Lofthouse), etc.
'Gate' and 'yate' must be mentioned among the suffixes. There are Yates, Yeats, Yeatman, Yatman, Lidgett for Litgate, and so forth.
'Brigg' (a bridge) occasionally becomes 'brick' as in Philbrick or Maybrick.
The change in suffixes ending in 'all' or 'ol,' to 'aw' or 'ow,' is curious but natural. Hence Bristow for Bristol. It is mostly related to pronounciation of certain words. For instance one might say "I am going to the haw' (i.e. hall). Hence Howgate for Holgate, Howroyd for Holroyd.

Nicknames.

With regard to nicknames, one has to be careful. The great unwritten law of imitation once more comes in.

Fish Names.

Fish-names, so called, excepting the generic term of Fish, or Fisk, are scarcely ever what they see, being in nine cases out of ten first or local names. We are on safe ground when it comes to bird and beast nicknames. These all represent some physical or moral characteristic that appealed at once to the popular understanding. The rudduck or sparrow, or the bull or he hart, werealways before people's eyes. As nicknames, they represented some quality of strengh, stolidity, quickness, or song. There was nothing particularly characteristic about the fish, and they were not always to be see. But the habits of bird and beast were always observable, and were comparable with the habits of mankind. Scarcely a single bird or beast name has escaped immortality through the aid of English nomenclature. A fierce man would be termed Wild, but often Wildbore. An agile man might be termed Lightfoot or Golightu; but others would be styled Hare, or Hart, or Stagg. A musical voice would gain for the possessor the sobriquet of Nightingale; a homely man would ve called Sparrow or Ruddock, just as often Goodfellow or Godman. It is quite different with fish-names so called. Fish is belived to possess no individuality so to speak; they led a dull and monotonous life. The fish-names that do exist seem to remind other names of other types. For example, Spratt, like Sprott, represents the old Domesday first name, Sprot; Salmon is the mediaeval and popular English name Salamon (i.e. Solomon); Haddock is easily proved to be the same as Haydock, a parish in South Lancashire; Pike is strictly local, and Chubb is most probably a sharpened form of Jubb (i.e. Job). Turbot is the son of Turbert. Trout is the son of Troyt, even Plaice is Place, from residence by the place or stead, or manor, or public broadway, or courtyard. Gudgeon is an imitative form of Goodson or Goodison. Keeling may represent the now nearly extinct name for a small cod, once so common on the north-east; but in the Hundred Rolls(1273) it is local. Herring is, as i Harrington, a family name. The Yorkshire Bucktrout seems to be really a fish-name.
There is the habit of styling people by some animal that seem to represent their chief characteristic. Hence 'vixen' for a shrewish' wife; 'rascal' for a vile, mean man; or 'urchin' for a rough, mischievous boy.

Beast Names.

English Oliphants or Olivants (i.e. elephant) were so called from their size. From surliness the sobriquet 'le Bere' arose, now Bear. Fierceness of temper originated 'le Wolfe,' now Wolf; williness, 'le Renaud,' 'le Tod,' and 'le Fox'; swiftness, and other characteristics, 'le Hare,' 'le Buk,' 'le Hart,' 'le Stagge,' etc. The badge is parent of 'le Broc' (Brock). The farming stock gave us Bull, Vache, Bullock, Colt, Stott, Veale, Mutton, Lamb, Kidd, Hogg, Bacon, Pigg, Pork, Purcell, Grice, and so on. Camel or Cammell does not belong to this list, being but a sharpened form of the great first name, Gamel.
The generic term 'Bird' was common and still is. Coming to species, falconry helped to make 'le Falcon,' 'le Kyte,' or 'le Hawk' familiar, the originals being probably of an eagerly grasping disposition. Hence also Muskett, Buzzard, Puttock, Goshawk, Tassell, Gleed (or Glide), or Sparrow-hawk. Thus was it with other birds. A showy man was Jay, a proud man Peacock or Pocock, a man of guile Rook. A young and lusty swaggerer is immortalized in Cockerell or Cock, and as a suffix. There are Ruddocks, Popjays, Gulls, Storks, Crows, Doves, Speights, Pinnocks, Turtles, Swans, Ducks, Duckerells, Sheldricks, Mallards, Gross's, Woodcocks, Partridges, Pheasants, Rains in English directories. Raven and Sparrowhawk (later Spark), were personal names at first.

Names of Relationship.

Relationship has given us many surnames, some of which will be unrecognizable to the ordinary reader. Fairbrother represents the Norman-French Beaufrere, a brother-in-law. Fairbairn probably is equivalent to the Norman-French Beaufils (or Beaufitz), a stepson. Frearson explains itself. The yorkshire last name Bairfather, or Barnfather or Banfather, is the child's father, probably one with some considerable inheretance. Hitchmough or Hickmott is 'Richards's brother-in-law.' Watmough is 'Walter's brother-in-law,' and is sometimes found as Watmuff, Whatmough, and Watmore in North England. Hence also such extinct surnames as Barnmawe (the child's brother-in-law), or Elysmagh (Ellis' brother-in-law), or Hudmagh (Ricard's brother-in-law), or Susannemagh (Susan's brotehr-in-law), or Tailliormoughe (the tailor's brother-in-law). Again, these are only examples. It would be easy to quote such names as Uncle, Cousine or Cousins, Neave, Senior, Younger, or Wodowson.

Terms of Endearment and Friendshp.

There are old sayings: 'Well, old chap,' or 'My good fellow.' Hence Goodfellow, Goodbody, Goodman, Goodchild, Leifchild, Bellamy, Bonamy, Wellbeloved, Truelove, Sweetcock, Lemon, Douceamour, Parramore, Bunting. Some of these names were at first baptisimal.

Descriptive Compounds.

We constantly come across descriptive compounds. John Little with LittleJohn, Bonjean (possibly later Bunyan), Prettyjohn, Blithman, Younghusband, Littlechick, Micklejohn, Leishman, Wightman, Merryman, Muddiman. There is the predominance oh John in names of this character. Included in this list we find such nicknames as Shakespear, Wagstaff, Breakspear, Shakelance.

Age, Size, Shape, Capacity.

In the surname epoch we find names that not merely described the build of the bearer, but distinguished him from somebody with the same baptisimal name. Such entries as Robert le Fatte, Henry le Lene, Henry le Crask, William le Thikke, etc, occur in early rolls and a now found in English directories as Craske, or Fatt, or Leane, or Thick, or Strong, or Long, or Short, or Longman, etc.

Nicknames from Peculiarities of Complection.

Suffice to say that we owe to nicknames a large and important list. Hence Morell, Lyard, Bayard, Favell, Burnell, Brunell, Russell, Rouse, Sor, Sorrell, Hore, White, Lilywhite, Black, Brown, Blanchflower, Brune, Grey, Grissell, Reed, Reid, Read, Swarte, Blund, Blunt, Blount, Blondin, Blundell, Dun, Burrell, etc.
So the run, occasionally taken from the color of the cloth they wore, as in Scarlett or Burrell, but in general from the complexion of the hair, face, or beard. Such compounds as Nutbrown, Silverlock, Brownbeard, and Whitehead will be found in abundance.

Mental and Moral Peculiarities.

This is an extremely large class.Kindly qualities are represented by Makepeace or Makejoy; social by Bland, Merry, or Gay; courteous by Curteis or Pollit; refined by Gentle, Sweet, or Hendy; lowly by Humble or Meek; arrogance by Proud or Prout; alertnes by Quick, Smart, or Snell; daring by Freak or Orped; miserliness by Pennifather; daringness again by Doughty or Bold; showiness by Gerrish; virtue by Bunn, Righteous, or Good. Bunker represents the old Bonquer. Moody and Musard testify to dreamy temperaments, and so on. There are opportunities for confusion though. Greedy (a Somersetshire name), for instance, being local, with the suffix 'hey,' is another illustration of imitation. Merriman, Moodiman, Slyman, Sillyman, Merryweather, Fairweather, Gladcheer, Liitleplroud, Proudlove, Proudfellow, or Proudfoot represent compound forms.